The City of Boulder Ethnographic Education Report: Pawnee Nation

The Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma is headquartered in the town of Pawnee in north central Oklahoma. The Pawnee were removed from their homelands along the North Platte River in 1875, when the federal government moved them to Oklahoma (Pawnee Nation, 2020). This new environment presented incredible challenges to the Pawnee, as they were forced to adapt to an entirely new way of life and negotiate their existence with the federal government (Royce Blaine, 1990; 1997). Even before their removal, the Pawnee people faced hardships in Nebraska due to the presence of missionaries. Their traditional way of life and cultural practices were disrupted as missionaries attempted to convert the Pawnee to Christianity. Many Pawnee were introduced to European-style agriculture and settlement practices, which conflicted with their traditional nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. Additionally, the arrival of settlers and traders, driven by westward expansion, led to the disruption of the Pawnee's land and resources (Dunbar, 2010; Irving 2001). Prior to colonization, a rich Pawnee culture of sophisticated economic practices, hunting techniques, and communal activities (like the Chawi Winter Hunt) existed in the Great Plains region (Roper, 1991).

We live by water, and I think that's why we traveled over here because we always followed water. And that's part of our history. I mean, even when we lived in Nebraska, it was always by the Platte River, you know. We've always lived by the water. I think that's just because it's a resource.
-Martha Only A Chief

The North Platte’s headwaters are in Coalmont, Colorado; just 100 miles northwest of Boulder. The Front Range’s abundant resources made it an attractive area for Pawnee people in the precolonial and early historical periods. The Pawnee created trails to the area primarily to hunt buffalo, who were being slaughtered for their hides by non-native settlers.

The Pawnee oral history stretches back hundreds, even thousands, of years, serving as a vital source of continuity for the community. It preserves not only the memory of significant sites but also ways of life and intricate cosmology, which blends spirituality, astronomy, and their cultural practices (Chamberlin, 1982). Like their cosmology, Pawnee social organization is intricate and thousands of years old. The Pawnee people consist of four bands, Pitahawirata, Kitkehahki, Chawi, and Ckiri. The Ckiri band has their own dialect of Pawnee, and the three other bands all speak a version of Pawnee called the South Band dialect (Only A Chief, 2025). Within these bands, Pawnee individuals held distinct roles, and one unique way they identify themselves among other Native peoples is through their distinct pottery styles.

They would come and they would camp. And then they – the men – would go out and hunt while the women would start setting up the tipi and preparing for when they come back. And then when they come back, then they would get the meat and skin it and all that. […] It wouldn't be everybody. It'd be just the ones that normally went hunted. And they'd probably bring the younger ones to, you know, show them what they need to do. […] So, they would stay in one place. They wouldn't move around and go hunt and go to different places. That's why you find scrapers, and there’s been pottery found. Different Tribes have different ways of identifying themselves and ours is cord marking. I guess the best way to say is, like a popsicle stick, and then get a cord and just wrap it around. When they make that pottery, they take that thing [stick] and just go all the way around. That's why they call it ‘cord marking’ on our pottery. Ours would have handles on them sometimes. But the other Tribes are different.
-Martha Only A Chief

It wasn’t just the Boulder Valley that held significance for the Pawnee, there are important spiritual and cultural sites in various parts of the state. Garden of the Gods in Colorado Springs was (and still is) a destination for the Pawnee and this impacted the expanse of their cultural landscape. In Pawnee history, the Garden of the Gods is the place buffalo would go to give birth, ensuring the continuity of this important subsistence animal. The importance of the buffalo is reflected in the petroglyphs of the Pawnee homelands, where bison are a common motif (Loendorf, 2008). The presence of buffalo historically drew Pawnee people to the Boulder area and beyond. But as non-native people moved in and started hunting buffalo for sport and trophy hunting, the Indigenous people who respected them as a valuable resource were left with a dwindling population of the animal that once provided so much.

That’s why we came over this way from Nebraska, just due to food resources. Because ours were getting eliminated by whomever shooting just for fun and not for use. We used everything from the bison, the buffalo. They [Pawnee people] used the hide. I mean they used the horn, made spoons out of the horns. I think we used as much as we could. […] all parts of the body. We didn't throw anything away. We had dogs because they were like horses at times, you know. So, that's probably what they fed them, whatever was left over [from the buffalo]. And our utensils, they made spoons out of the bison horns and bags out of their guts or their insides. That’s what it provided to us.
-Martha Only A Chief

Dogs were another important animal, serving a different role than the buffalo. The Pawnee people have a long history with these animals, often using them alongside or in place of horses. Ms. Only A Chief explained that dogs were considered "like gold" because of their ability to carry and drag materials over long distances. While both dogs and buffalo had practical purposes, they also held spiritual significance. Many animals were culturally and spiritually meaningful to the Pawnee, such as the eagle, which Ms. Only A Chief described as "a blessing."

Water is a resource with multi-faceted meaning for the Pawnee people. As expressed, “Water is, water is life. You can't live without it” (Only A Chief, 2024). The waters of the North Platte River served many vital purposes when the Pawnee people lived in their homelands. As Ms. Only A Chief explains,

You live by water because you have that access to water your crops, feed your family and you don't have that far to carry water. Because you have to have water to survive. So that's why we've always lived by water.
-Martha Only A Chief

In addition to its practical value for crops, people, and animals, water holds deep spiritual significance that has been passed down through generations. Water can help a person who needs healing, or to calm the soul and soothe the mind.

What I was told: if I’m having a hard time or things aren't going right; go to the water and watch the water because it'll calm your soul. It'll calm your mind. So sometimes I'll go to this lake and then I'll just go out there and sit there and then I'll just start talking […] And then after that, I just feel better.
-Martha Only A Chief

Given its many essential roles, water remains a cornerstone of Pawnee life. The loss of access to clean river water when the Pawnee were relocated to Oklahoma underscores its importance. The water flowing through the Boulder Valley should be treasured as the gift it truly is. The value of water is ever increasing as the climate changes, building projects progress, and the population increases. This is a pattern the Pawnee witnessed historically and are observing today.

Pawnee, where I live, we've been having rain almost constantly for two weeks and that's unusual. It is crazy how this climate changes. [...] You got running water coming from there [a creek in the distance]. I guess the only thing is just the building. How much more do you need to build? How much more are you gonna take away, you know? […] Where I live, we don't have running water like that. We just have a lake. And as I keep saying, you're blessed to have something like this. Because we're all fighting for water where we live. It's not really drinkable. We always have a ‘boiling water order’ throughout the city. The people that use the water. So, you're lucky and it's awesome to see that.
-Martha Only A Chief

Being in the Boulder area serves as a reminder of Pawnee people that once existed on the land, and can inspire a sense of connection and continuity for the Pawnee today. Speaking about the area, Ms. Only A Chief reflected on a deep sense of connection to the land, ancestors, and spiritual practices. She spoke about the significance of knowing where their ancestors traveled, how they honored the land, and the rituals they performed, such as praying and offering tobacco before taking anything from nature. She shares the special bond that certain places hold, like the Garden of the Gods, where the act of gathering cedar was intertwined with prayer and gratitude. It’s a reflection on the peacefulness and reverence of tradition, highlighting the importance of emotional and spiritual connections to both people and places across generations.

To us, anything traditional is anything that you can use from the earth for any reason – whether it's medicine, whatever. Sage or flat cedar, that's what we pray with or just cedar but, that's culture to us. Because we use that for specific reasons. It's not just to tear things down or to take everything and not leave something.
-Martha Only A Chief

The following is a list of plants that are found in the Boulder area and their names in Pawnee.

Appreciating what one has is an important lesson from the Pawnee, who have nearly lost and revitalized several of their cultural traditions. The 1883 Code of Indian Offences outlawed Indigenous spiritual and religious practices like dances, gift-giving, and medicine men (Price, 1883). This law was in place for 95 years until 1978, when the American Indian Religious Freedom Act was signed by President Carter (American Indian Religious Freedom, 1978). Any Native person over the age of 50 can remember a time when they weren’t allowed to engage in their cultural and religious practices, and knows that their parents, grandparents, and even greatgrandparents couldn’t do so either. The resilience of traditional practices demonstrates the resilience Native people everywhere. These dances and traditions are more meaningful than many non-native people assume; for example, the Ghostdance, a form of traditional game involving hidden objects and teams, was used as a medium for expressing cultural values, social bonds, and religious beliefs tied to the Ghost Dance (Lesser, 1978). Ms. Only A Chief talked about how the Nation has started holding spring and fall dances, where they feed their people and perform traditional dances. She expressed her love for dancing, as it connects her to the heartbeat of the drum. While acknowledging that their efforts to revive their culture might not have exactly replicated what their ancestors did, she emphasized the importance of preserving it. She highlighted that it was their responsibility to keep the culture alive.

There's a difference between ceremony and spiritual things. To us, ceremony- the only ceremony that we had that's been brought down from Nebraska is when we put our people away [i.e. funeral]. That's the only ceremony that's carried on and still carried on. Same way, same thing. […] We mourn for four days. We feed the people, feed the family. And then we give away whatever people bring us. […] The thing about Pawnee people is we take care of each other. […] We've lost most of our dances due to being told we couldn’t do our dances when we went to Oklahoma. So, the people that used to do dances, they didn't continue, just to keep the family from getting in trouble. So, we've lost ceremonial dances.
-Martha Only A Chief

Protecting the natural spaces in the Boulder area is crucial for preserving the region’s rich biodiversity, maintaining ecological balance, and supporting the health and well-being of its residents and associated peoples. The area's unique landscapes offer vital habitats for diverse wildlife, while also serving as essential areas for connection to nature. These natural spaces help regulate the local climate, improve air and water quality, and provide flood protection. Additionally, they play a significant role in the cultural and spiritual lives of many, offering opportunities for reflection, healing, and outdoor activities that foster a sense of community. By safeguarding these precious landscapes, Boulder ensures that future generations will continue to experience the beauty and benefits of its natural environment, while also contributing to global efforts to preserve natural ecosystems and mitigate climate change. Caring for the environment is a universal concept that we can all connect to. It is vital to engage staff, volunteers, and the public in this goal so everyone can work together to preserve the natural spaces that mean so much to us all.

One has to have love for the land to protect that land. They have to have that compassion and appreciate Mother Earth.
-Martha Only A Chief

Not only can the natural places around Boulder be protected for residents and visitors, but also for future generations of Native children who need a connection to their culture and homelands. Ms. Only A Chief reflected on how many of her people, especially the youth, don’t have the opportunity to experience important places or learn about their history. She hopes that by exposing younger generations to these locations, it will inspire them to pursue education and connect with their heritage. Ms. Only A Chief emphasizes the importance of preserving these experiences so that future generations can witness and feel a connection to their ancestors.

[The] big thing right there, is to keep it going so later our people can come over here, our youth, and witness what I've witnessed. And it's different seeing it and hearing about it, but actually being here, it opens your mind, your heart to know that your relatives have been here.
-Martha Only A Chief

An often-overlooked element of protecting a place is protecting the stories and knowledge that comes with it. These narratives should only be provided by those who they concern. “Now more than ever, we want our stories to be told” (Only A Chief, 2024). Throughout history, the stories of Indigenous people in the United States have been told by non-native people. This third-party knowledge has perpetuated incorrect information and created false sources. As the Pawnee Nation continues its partnership with the City of Boulder, the rich history, culture, and stories from the Boulder area will continue to be uncovered and enjoyed.

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